HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS		QUICK SEARCH:   [advanced] Author: Keyword(s): Year:  Vol:  Page:

This Article Full Text (PDF) Submit a response View Shopping Cart Alert me when this article is cited Alert me when eLetters are posted Alert me if a correction is posted Services Related articles in AJPH Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Citing Articles Citing Articles via HighWire Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Schwartz, S Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Schwartz, S

The fallacy of the ecological fallacy: the potential misuse of a concept and the consequences.

S Schwartz

Division of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032.

Ecological studies have been evaluated in epidemiological contexts in terms of the "ecological fallacy." Although the empirical evidence for a lack of comparability between correlations derived from ecological- and individual-level analyses is compelling, the conceptual meaning of the ecological fallacy remains problematic. This paper argues that issues in cross-level inference can be usefully conceptualized as validity problems, problems not peculiar to ecological-level analyses. Such an approach increases the recognition of both potential inference problems in individual-level studies and the unique contributions of ecological variables. This, in turn, expands the terrain for the location of causes for disease and interventions to improve the public's health.

Related articles in AJPH:

Ecologic analysis as outlook and method.

C Poole
AJPH 1994 84: 715-716. [PDF]  

This article has been cited by other articles:

				K. C. Stange and R. L. Ferrer The Paradox of Primary Care Ann. Fam. Med, July 1, 2009; 7(4): 293 - 299. [Full Text] [PDF]

				S. Choi Diversity in the US Federal Government: Diversity Management and Employee Turnover in Federal Agencies J. Public Adm. Res. Theory., July 1, 2009; 19(3): 603 - 630. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				D. J. Roberts, C. A. Hornung, and H. C. Polk jr Another Duel in the Sun: Weighing the Balances Between Sun Protection, Tanning Beds, and Malignant Melanoma Clinical Pediatrics, July 1, 2009; 48(6): 614 - 622. [Abstract] [PDF]

				S. E. Rodgers, R. A. Lyons, R. Dsilva, K. H. Jones, C. J. Brooks, D. V. Ford, G. John, and J.-P. Verplancke Residential Anonymous Linking Fields (RALFs): a novel information infrastructure to study the interaction between the environment and individuals' health J. Public Health Med., May 15, 2009; (2009) fdp041v1. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				C Mair, A V D. Roux, and S Galea Are neighbourhood characteristics associated with depressive symptoms? A review of evidence J Epidemiol Community Health, November 1, 2008; 62(11): 940 - 946. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				O. Naess and A. Schiotz Commentary: Kristian Feyer Andvord's studies on the epidemiology of tuberculosis and the origin of generation cohort analysis Int. J. Epidemiol., October 1, 2008; 37(5): 923 - 932. [Full Text] [PDF]

				A. V. Diez Roux Towards a realistic and relevant public health: the challenges of useful simplification J. Public Health Med., September 1, 2008; 30(3): 230 - 231. [Full Text] [PDF]

				C. Asseburg, Y. Bravo Vergel, S. Palmer, E. Fenwick, M. de Belder, K. R Abrams, and M. Sculpher Assessing the effectiveness of primary angioplasty compared with thrombolysis and its relationship to time delay: a Bayesian evidence synthesis Heart, October 1, 2007; 93(10): 1244 - 1250. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				L. Lisabeth, A. Diez Roux, J. Escobar, M. Smith, and L. Morgenstern Neighborhood Environment and Risk of Ischemic Stroke: The Brain Attack Surveillance in Corpus Christi (BASIC) Project Am. J. Epidemiol., February 1, 2007; 165(3): 279 - 287. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				E. Sellstrom and S. Bremberg Review Article: The significance of neighbourhood context to child and adolescent health and well-being: A systematic review of multilevel studies Scand J Public Health, October 1, 2006; 34(5): 544 - 554. [Abstract] [PDF]

				S.V. Subramanian, S. Nandy, M. Irving, D. Gordon, H. Lambert, and G. Davey Smith The Mortality Divide in India: The Differential Contributions of Gender, Caste, and Standard of Living Across the Life Course Am J Public Health, May 1, 2006; 96(5): 818 - 825. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				W. P. Myers, J. L. Westenhouse, J. Flood, and L. W. Riley An Ecological Study of Tuberculosis Transmission in California Am J Public Health, April 1, 2006; 96(4): 685 - 690. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				E. M. Andresen and D. K. Miller The Future (History) of Socioeconomic Measurement and Implications for Improving Health Outcomes Among African Americans J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci., October 1, 2005; 60(10): 1345 - 1350. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				C. G Owen, P. H Whincup, and D. G Cook Are early life factors responsible for international differences in adult blood pressure? An ecological study Int. J. Epidemiol., June 1, 2005; 34(3): 649 - 654. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				A Hennis Intraocular pressure in the Middle East Br J Ophthalmol, June 1, 2005; 89(6): 647 - 648. [Full Text] [PDF]

				K. Shibuya and E. Yano Regression analysis of trends in mortality from hepatocellular carcinoma in Japan, 1972-2001 Int. J. Epidemiol., April 1, 2005; 34(2): 397 - 402. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				M Stevenson and R McClure Use of ecological study designs for injury prevention Inj. Prev., February 1, 2005; 11(1): 2 - 4. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				M. E. Cinat, S. E. Wilson, S. Lush, and C. Atkins Significant Correlation of Trauma Epidemiology With the Economic Conditions of a Community Arch Surg, December 1, 2004; 139(12): 1350 - 1355. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				Y.-J. Chou and N. Huang Response Int. J. Epidemiol., December 1, 2004; 33(6): 1409 - 1410. [Full Text] [PDF]

				M. H. Bond, K. Leung, A. Au, K.-K. Tong, S. R. de Carrasquel, F. Murakami, S. Yamaguchi, G. Bierbrauer, T. M. Singelis, M. Broer, et al. Culture-Level Dimensions of Social Axioms and Their Correlates across 41 Cultures Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, September 1, 2004; 35(5): 548 - 570. [Abstract] [PDF]

				K. Jaskyte and W. W. Dressler Studying Culture as an Integral Aggregate Variable: Organizational Culture and Innovation in a Group of Nonprofit Organizations Field Methods, August 1, 2004; 16(3): 265 - 284. [Abstract] [PDF]

				C. A. Leaver, D. Allman, T. Meyers, and P. J. Veugelers Effectiveness of HIV Prevention in Ontario, Canada: A Multilevel Comparison of Bisexual Men Am J Public Health, July 1, 2004; 94(7): 1181 - 1185. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				A. V. Diez Roux The Study of Group-Level Factors in Epidemiology: Rethinking Variables, Study Designs, and Analytical Approaches Epidemiol. Rev., July 1, 2004; 26(1): 104 - 111. [Full Text] [PDF]

				Y. Fukuda, K. Nakamura, and T. Takano Wide range of socioeconomic factors associated with mortality among cities in Japan Health Promot. Int., June 1, 2004; 19(2): 177 - 187. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				L. S Gross, L. Li, E. S Ford, and S. Liu Increased consumption of refined carbohydrates and the epidemic of type 2 diabetes in the United States: an ecologic assessment Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, May 1, 2004; 79(5): 774 - 779. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				L Shi, J Macinko, B Starfield, J Xu, J Regan, R Politzer, and J Wulu Primary care, infant mortality, and low birth weight in the states of the USA J Epidemiol Community Health, May 1, 2004; 58(5): 374 - 380. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				J. Allik and A. Realo Individualism-Collectivism and Social Capital Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, January 1, 2004; 35(1): 29 - 49. [Abstract] [PDF]

				L. Shi, J. Macinko, B. Starfield, J. Wulu, J. Regan, and R. Politzer The Relationship Between Primary Care, Income Inequality, and Mortality in US States, 1980-1995 J Am Board Fam Med, September 1, 2003; 16(5): 412 - 422. [Abstract] [Full Text]

				M Lindstrom, M Moghaddassi, and J Merlo Social capital and leisure time physical activity: a population based multilevel analysis in Malmo, Sweden J Epidemiol Community Health, January 1, 2003; 57(1): 23 - 28. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				K. Witten, D. Exeter, and A. Field The Quality of Urban Environments: Mapping Variation in Access to Community Resources Urban Stud, January 1, 2003; 40(1): 161 - 177. [Abstract] [PDF]

				P. O'Campo Invited Commentary: Advancing Theory and Methods for Multilevel Models of Residential Neighborhoods and Health Am. J. Epidemiol., January 1, 2003; 157(1): 9 - 13. [Full Text] [PDF]

				D L Armstrong, D Strogatz, and R Wang Trends in coronary mortality and community services, associated with occupational structure in New York State, 1980-96 J Epidemiol Community Health, November 1, 2002; 56(11): 868 - 875. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				S. W Marshall, A. E Waller, R. W Dick, C. B Pugh, D. P Loomis, and D. J Chalmers An ecologic study of protective equipment and injury in two contact sports Int. J. Epidemiol., June 1, 2002; 31(3): 587 - 592. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				S O Aral Understanding racial-ethnic and societal differentials in STI Sex Transm Inf, February 1, 2002; 78(1): 2 - 4. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				S. S. Merkin, L. Stevenson, and N. Powe Geographic Socioeconomic Status, Race, and Advanced-Stage Breast Cancer in New York City Am J Public Health, January 1, 2002; 92(1): 64 - 70. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				S. Greenland Ecologic versus individual-level sources of bias in ecologic estimates of contextual health effects Int. J. Epidemiol., December 1, 2001; 30(6): 1343 - 1350. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				A. V. Diez Roux Investigating Neighborhood and Area Effects on Health Am J Public Health, November 1, 2001; 91(11): 1783 - 1789. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				L. Shi and B. Starfield The Effect of Primary Care Physician Supply and Income Inequality on Mortality Among Blacks and Whites in US Metropolitan Areas Am J Public Health, August 1, 2001; 91(8): 1246 - 1250. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				S W Wen, K Demissie, D August, and G G Rhoads Level of aggregation for optimal epidemiological analysis: the case of time to surgery and unnecessary removal of the normal appendix J Epidemiol Community Health, March 1, 2001; 55(3): 198 - 203. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				H. Bosma, H. Dike van de Mheen, G. J. J. M. Borsboom, and J. P. Mackenbach Neighborhood Socioeconomic Status and All-Cause Mortality Am. J. Epidemiol., February 15, 2001; 153(4): 363 - 371. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				D. Armstrong ``Controversies in epidemiology'', teaching causality in context at the University at Albany, School of Public Health Scand J Public Health, April 1, 1999; 27(2): 81 - 84. [Abstract] [PDF]

				P. D. Bliese Group Size, ICC Values, and Group-Level Correlations: A Simulation Organizational Research Methods, October 1, 1998; 1(4): 355 - 373. [Abstract]

				B. Starfield Quality-of-Care Research: Internal Elegance and External Relevance JAMA, September 16, 1998; 280(11): 1006 - 1008. [Full Text] [PDF]

				C. L Anderson, P. F Agran, D. G Winn, and C. Tran Demographic risk factors for injury among Hispanic and non-Hispanic white children: an ecologic analysis Inj. Prev., March 1, 1998; 4(1): 33 - 38. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				P. Brown Popular Epidemiology Revisited Current Sociology, July 1, 1997; 45(3): 137 - 156. [Abstract]

				G. A Kaplan, E. R Pamuk, J. W Lynch, R. D Cohen, and J. L Balfour Inequality in income and mortality in the United States: analysis of mortality and potential pathways BMJ, April 20, 1996; 312(7037): 999 - 1003. [Abstract] [Full Text]