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© 2004 American Public Health Association
RESEARCH AND PRACTICE |
At the time of the study Vence L. Bonham was with Michigan State University, East Lansing. Sherrill L. Sellers is with the University of Wisconsin, Madison. Harold W. Neighbors is with the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Correspondence: Requests for reprints should be sent to Vence L. Bonham, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, 31 Center Drive Bldg. 31, Room 4B09, Bethesda, MD 20892 (e-mail: bonhamv{at}mail.nih.gov).
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONReferences |
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We performed a cross-sectional survey of high–socioeconomic status (SES) African American men and their health to examine the relationship between John Henryism (the strong behavioral predisposition to directly confront barriers to upward social mobility) and selfreported physical health status. We found a positive association between John Henryism and better physical health among high-SES African American men. The study of social and behavioral implications of health of men of differing SES is required to develop strategies to improve the health of African American men.
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONReferences |
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African American men report lower levels of physical health and have higher mortality rates than their non-Black counterparts.1 One of the causes of this increased risk is exposure to racially based stressors.2 To better explain these patterns of physical health risks in general, and cardiovascular risk in particular, Sherman James developed the construct of John Henryism. John Henryism is a strong behavioral predisposition to directly confront barriers to upward social mobility.3 African Americans possessing a high John Henryism orientation believe that just about any obstacle can be overcome through hard work and a strong determination to succeed.
The majority of studies on John Henryism have focused on hypertension.3–8 This study analyzes the association between John Henryism and self-reported health status in a high–socioeconomic status (SES) group of African American men. Assessing the relationship of John Henryism to self-reported health status expands the body of knowledge on John Henryism. At present, we do not know enough about whether John Henryism operates primarily on cardiovascular disease or whether it has more pervasive health effects.
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METHODS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONReferences |
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The study sample consisted of African American men who were members of a historically Black national fraternal organization drawn from 5 midwestern states. Study design was a cross-sectional survey and included a total of 399 completed interviews. The overall response rate for the survey was 78.7%, with a refusal rate of 8.2%. Response rates did not vary appreciably across the states. Ordinary least squares regression analysis was used to assess the relationship between physical health as measured by the short form health survey (SF-12)9 and high active coping as measured by the John Henryism scale.3
Control variables included age, income, education, and marital status; age and income were continuous measures. Age was measured with the respondent’s date of birth, and income was based on a continuous measure of self-reported annual income from all sources. Education was dummy-coded 1 for bachelor’s degrees and 0 for graduate degrees; marital status contrasted those who were married with those who had never married or were formerly married. The John Henryism scale was constructed by summing scores on 12 items. Total scores range from a low of 12 to a high of 60. Cronbach 
for internal consistency was .69.
The dependent variable was the physical health component of the SF-12 constructed to have a mean of 50 and standard deviation of 10; higher scores are associated with better physical health.9
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RESULTS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONReferences |
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Table 1
reports the correlations and descriptive statistics for the sample. Mean age of respondents was 47.6 years, and mean annual household income was $87 653, indicating a sample well above the national average income; nearly 70% were married. Respondents were highly educated: 56% held masters or doctorate degrees. The mean score on the John Henryism scale was 51.6, and the median score was 51.25, which indicates a modest level of active coping. The mean score for SF-12 physical health subscale was 52.9, indicating a healthy sample. Table 2 presents an ordinary least squares regression model predicting physical health. Older men and those with lower incomes had poor physical health. A trend was found for education and marital status indicating that men who were married and those without postgraduate education scored lower on physical health. Furthermore, there was a trend indicative of a positive association between John Henryism and physical health (P = .069) such that respondents with higher levels of John Henryism reported better physical health.
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DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONReferences |
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Previous work on race, SES, and health in African Americans has led to different perspectives on the health implications of John Henryism. Some studies indicate that John Henryism protects upper-SES African Americans from the negative health effects of race-based stressors, whereas others indicate the opposite.10–12 This study finds that among high-SES African American men, John Henryism is beneficial for health.
The reasons for the positive health effects of John Henryism remain the subject of conjecture. John Henryism is an individual behavioral predisposition that can pay major dividends for career achievement and material gain.13 Clearly, the economic and educational success of these men provides them greater access to quality health care. Our data indicate that in the context of high SES, John Henryism is a resource that African American men draw on to contribute to their positive health outcomes. We speculate that John Henryism is conducive to increasing personal responsibility for one’s health with the same single-minded determination to succeed. This hypothesis deserves further study.
To develop public health strategies to improve the health of all African American men requires the study of the social and behavioral implications of health of men of differing SES.
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Acknowledgments |
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Primary support for this study was provided by a grant from the Centers of Excellence Small Research Grants Program, Health Resources and Services Administration (project no. D34 MB 04036-06).
The authors would like to thank the men of Omega Psi Phi Fraternity Inc, Tenth District, that participated in Project UPLIFT for their commitment to improving the health of African American men.
Human Participant Protection
This study was approved by the Michigan State University committee on research involving human subjects.
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Footnotes |
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Contributors
V. L. Bonham was the principal investigator of the project and conceived the study. V. L Bonham, S. L. Sellers, and H. W. Neighbors each contributed substantially to conceptualization and design of the study and to interpretation of the findings. S. L. Sellers conducted the statistical analyses. H. W. Neighbors provided guidance in the interpretation of the findings. Each author contributed equally to critical revision of the article.
Accepted for publication June 15, 2003.
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References |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONReferences |
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1. Eberhart MS, Ingram DD, Makuc DM, et al. Urban and Rural Health Chartbook. Health, United States, 2001. Hyattsville, Md: National Center for Health Statistics; 2001.
2. Williams DR, Neighbors HW. Racism, discrimination and hypertension: evidence and needed research. Ethnicity Dis. 2001;11:800–816.[Medline]
3. James SA, LaCroix AZ, Kelinbaum DG, Strogatz DS. John Henryism and blood pressure differences among black men. II The role of occupational stressors. J Behav Med. 1984;7:259–275.[Web of Science][Medline]
4. James SA, Hartnett SA, Kalsbeek WD. John Henryism and blood pressure differences among black men. J Behav Med. 1983;6:259–279.[Web of Science][Medline]
5. James SA, Strogatz DS, Wong SB, Ramsey DL. Socioeconomic status, John Henryism and hypertension in blacks and whites. Am J Epidemiol. 1987;126:664–673.
6. James SA, Keenan NL, Strogatz DS, Browning SR, Garrett JM. Socioeconomic status, John Henryism, and blood pressure in Black adults: The Pitt County Study. Am J Epidemiol. 1992;135:59–67.
7. James,SA, Thomas, PE. John Henryism and blood pressure in Black populations: a review of the evidence. African Am Res Perspectives. 2000;6(3):1–10.
8. Duijkers TJ, Drijver M, Kromhout D, James SA. "John Henryism" and blood pressure in a Dutch population. Psychosom Med. 1988;50(4):353–9.
9. Ware JE, Kosinski M, and Keller SD. A 12-Item Short-Form Health Survey: construction of scales and preliminary tests of reliability and validity. Medical Care. 1996;34(3):220–233.[Web of Science][Medline]
10. Markovic N, Bunker CH, Ukoli FA, Kuller LH, John Henryism and blood pressure among Nigerian civil servants, J Epidemiol Community Health. 1998;52:186–190.[Abstract]
11. Light KC, Brownley KA, Turner JR, Hinderliter AL, et al. Job status and high-effort coping influence work blood pressure in women and blacks. Hypertension 1995;25:554–559.
12. McKetney EC, Ragland DR. John Henryism, education and blood pressure in young adults: The CARDIA study. Am J Epidemiol Community Health. 1998;52(3):186–190.
13. Sellers SL, Neighbors HW. Goal striving stress, social economic status, and the mental health of black Americans. Ann New York Acad Sci. 1999;896:469–473.[Web of Science][Medline]
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