|
 |
|
|||||||
|
|||||||||
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
© 2007 American Public Health Association
DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.2006.101212
RESEARCH AND PRACTICE |
Stephen Marcus is with the National Cancer Institute, Washington, DC. Kerstin Pahl, Yuming Ning, and Judith Brook are with the Department of Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine, New York.
Correspondence: Requests for reprints should be sent to Stephen E. Marcus, PhD, Tobacco Research Branch, National Cancer Institute, Executive Plaza North, Rm 4046, Rockville, MD 20852 (e-mail: marcusst{at}mail.nih.gov).
 |
ABSTRACT |
|---|
 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONReferences |
|---|
Objectives. We examined the pathways to smoking cessation between late adolescence and young adulthood.
Methods. We obtained data from a sample of urban African American and Puerto Rican young adults (N=242), mean age 19 years, who reported tobacco use and determined cessation rates between late adolescence and young adulthood. We used structural equation modeling to examine the pathways of positive family relations, family smoking, maladaptive personality attributes, and substance use to smoking cessation.
Results. A mediational pathway linked the absence of positive family relations with maladaptive personality attributes, both of which were related to substance use and ultimately smoking cessation. Substance use mediated the path between family smoking and smoking cessation.
Conclusions. The results suggest that a positive relationship with one’s parents, less smoking in the family, conventional personality attributes, and little or no other substance use facilitate smoking cessation among young adults.
|
INTRODUCTION |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONReferences |
|---|
Smoking is on the decline in the United States1; however, tobacco use continues to inflict a great burden on society in terms of morbidity and mortality. Smoking has been linked to numerous adverse health outcomes, including heart disease, cancer, stroke, and respiratory disease.2 It is estimated that 440000 deaths3 are attributable to tobacco use every year. To reduce this considerable loss, it is important to reduce the number of people who start smoking and increase efforts to support those who have already initiated smoking cessation efforts. It is particularly important to target young adults who have not been smokers for long, because the chances of becoming dependent on nicotine—a severe barrier to cessation—increase with years of smoking.4 In addition, younger smokers who quit have a greater chance of escaping the more serious health consequences of smoking such as lung cancer.5
By young adulthood (ages 20–29), many smokers experience great difficulty when they attempt to quit smoking.6 There is some evidence that a higher percentage of adolescent (mean age 19 years) and young adult (mean age 24 years) smokers than of older adult smokers are addicted to nicotine4 and find it very difficult to stop smoking. To identify the factors that can facilitate smoking cessation in this younger age group, we investigated pathways to cessation among racial/ethnic populations. There is a dearth of research on the pathways to smoking cessation among young adults of color. Our study will begin to fill this gap in the research literature by exploring the pathways to smoking cessation among a sample of African Americans and Latinos of Puerto Rican descent in young adulthood. The theoretical approach was based in family interactional theory,7 which stresses the importance of multiple domains of influence on legal and illegal substance use and cessation.
One crucial domain of influence on young adult tobacco cessation, according to family interactional theory, is the smoking behavior of family members. We hypothesized that the relation between the smoking behavior of close family members (mother, siblings) and smoking cessation would be mediated by the young adult’s use of legal and illegal substances. (A mediator is a variable that stands causally between the predictor and the dependent variable on which it has an effect and accounts in part or in full for that effect.) Adolescents who are exposed to smoking in their families are likely to initiate smoking at a younger age,8 which in turn, is related to less successful smoking cessation in adulthood.9,10 Family influences on smoking may also make adolescents and young adults more susceptible to the use of other substances, including alcohol and marijuana.11,12 The mechanisms underlying the relation between family smoking and substance use may be the result of genetic influences13 or social modeling, or both.14,15 Substance use, in turn, has been shown to be inversely related to smoking cessation.16
In addition, we hypothesized that family smoking would exert a direct negative effect on young adult smoking cessation. Parental smoking has been shown to be associated with adolescent tobacco use17–24 and less successful attempts to quit.25 Furthermore, siblings’ smoking contributes to the risk of adolescents’ smoking. For example, Gritz et al.22 found that adolescents who lived with at least 1 parent who smoked, as well as at least 1 sibling who smoked, were 4.58 times more likely to have tried smoking than those who did not live with any relatives who smoked.
In addition to the effect of family smoking on young adult smoking cessation, the quality of parent–offspring relationships appear to play an important role in successful smoking cessation. According to family interactional theory, adolescents and young adults who have a closer bond and less conflict with their parents should smoke less7,26 and should have an easier time with smoking cessation as young adults. We hypothesized that this relation would be mediated by the young adult’s maladaptive personality attributes and their substance use. A positive, conflict-free relationship with one’s parents contributes to psychological health and a less deviant personality. Mutual parent–child bonding will result in the internalization of conventional values by the adolescent.7 Failure to develop a positive parent–offspring bond in adolescence and young adulthood may lead to psychological distress, deviance, and other maladaptive behaviors and attitudes.
Maladaptive personality attributes such as unconventionality, low achievement, and intrapersonal distress have been shown to be associated with tobacco and other substance use.22,27–30 For example, Bryant and Zimmerman27 found that both academic achievement and truancy were related to substance use (smoking, alcohol, and marijuana) among urban adolescents. Gritz et al.22 found that depressive symptoms were related to smoking status in a sample of adolescents. Higher levels of substance use and the initiation of smoking at a young age both make it more difficult for young adults to give up smoking.9,10,16
In this study of pathways to smoking cessation between late adolescence and young adulthood, we hypothesized that (1) there would be a mediational path between positive family relationships and smoking cessation via the young adults’ maladaptive personality attributes and substance use; (2) family models of smoking would relate positively to substance use, which in turn would relate negatively to cessation of smoking; and (3) there would be direct negative paths from family smoking and substance use to smoking cessation. We also hypothesized that these pathways to smoking cessation would be similar in both African American and Puerto Rican young adults.
|
METHODS |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONReferences |
|---|
Participants
The sample for our study consisted of African American and Puerto Rican adolescents and young adults who were studied longitudinally. The mean ages of the sample were 19.1 years (SD=1.5) at wave 2 and 24.4 years (SD=1.3) at wave 3. Our analysis included only those participants who smoked at wave 2 (N=242), of which 50.3% were African American and 49.7% were Puerto Rican. Half of the sample were women. Eighty-two percent of the African American participants and 70% of the Puerto Rican participants reported having a high-school diploma, General Equivalency Diploma, or more education at wave 3.
The data collection for the longitudinal study began in 1990; wave 2 data were collected in 1995, and wave 3 data in 2000–2001. The wave 1 sample was selected from students in the 7th and 10th grades at 11 schools in a school district that served the East Harlem area of New York City. At wave 3, we did not attempt to interview the entire sample, because of budget constraints. Instead, we oversampled those respondents who reported that they used marijuana, other illicit drugs, had a child at wave 2, or any combination of those factors. The strategy was to sample a sufficient number of marijuana users and participants who had children but to stay within budgetary limitations.
In-person interviews were used to collect the wave 1 and wave 2 data. The wave 3 data were collected during both in-person interviews and telephone interviews for participants who did not live within a reasonable distance from New York City. With 2 exceptions, the t test showed no significant differences in the wave 1 psychosocial predictor variables between participants who were interviewed at both wave 1 and wave 3 and those who did not participate at wave 3. Although statistically significant, the mean differences in rebelliousness and risk-taking at wave 1 that were found between participants who dropped out of the study and those who did not were small in magnitude.
Measures
The study scales are according to item intercorrelations and reliabilities and were grouped into 4 sets of variables (i.e., positive family relationships, family smoking, participant’s maladaptive personality attributes, and participant’s substance use). All variables, except the smoking cessation measure, were derived from data collected at wave 3. In the following descriptions, scales that lack a reference were developed by S. M.
Positive Family Relationships.
This domain consisted of 2 three-item scales, mother’s (
= 0.72) and father’s ( = 0.78) nonconflictual relationship with the young adult. The 3-item scales evaluated the young adult’s perception of the extent to which there was conflict in the parent–offspring relationship—for example, "You seldom follow your mother’s advice unless she keeps after you."31 Response options ranged from "not at all like you"1 to "very much like you."4
Family smoking. This domain consisted of 2 single-item scales, including mother’s and sibling’s frequency of smoking in the past 5 years. The response options ranged from "none"1 to "more than 1 pack a day."6
Participant’s maladaptive personality attributes.
This domain consisted of 5 multi-item scales. They were: (1) tolerance of deviance and risk taking ( = 0.70), a 7-item scale to assess the participant’s orientation to deviant and risk-taking behavior32,33; (2) achievement ( = 0.80), a 10-item scale designed to evaluate the participant’s educational achievement orientation by asking "how many years of school do you hope to complete?"; (3) rebelliousness ( = 0.70), a 3-item scale assessing the participant’s willingness to oppose conventional rules such as "doing things you shouldn’t, just for the fun of it" or "ignoring rules that get in the way"34; (4) depression ( = 0.80), an 8-item scale that evaluated the frequency of depressed affect (e.g., "you feel lonely," "you feel hopeless")35; and (5) deviance ( = 0.80), a 13-item scale to assess delinquent and antisocial behavior such as "stolen things from family or friends."36
Participant’s substance use. This domain consisted of 3 single-item scales including the frequency of marijuana and alcohol use in the past year and the age at which the participant began smoking. Response options for frequency of marijuana and alcohol use ranged from "never"1 to "once a week or more."5
The dependent variable, smoking cessation, assessed whether or not the participant had quit smoking between wave 2 and wave 3 (1 = quit, 0 = continued to smoke). Those participants who reported any cigarette smoking at wave 2 and no smoking at wave 3 were classified as "quitters." At both time points, the participant was asked about smoking frequency. Answering options included "None,"1 "A few cigarettes or less a week,"2 "1–5 cigarettes a day,"3 "About half a pack a day,"4 "About 1 pack a day,"5 and "More than 1 pack a day."6
Data Analysis
We used structural equation modeling to test the hypothesized model. We began by computing a confirmatory factor analysis to assess the validity of the latent constructs. The modification indices were computed to determine whether the manifest variables fit the latent construct. Next, a structural equation model was tested to determine whether the hypothesized pathways among latent constructs adequately represented the covariance structure among the variables. Because we had clear, directional hypotheses regarding the relations between the latent constructs, we used a 1-tailed test of statistical significance.37 We also assessed the relations of participant’s age, ethnicity, gender, and education with smoking cessation. None of the relations were statistically significant.
|
RESULTS |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONReferences |
|---|
Seventy-nine participants quit smoking between age 19 and 24 years. Thus, the cessation rate was 32% for the entire sample of wave 2 smokers. Among the African American participants, 28% quit smoking; 36% of the Puerto Rican participants stopped smoking between age 19 and 24 years.
In the structural equation model we obtained, which shows the pathways to smoking cessation in young adulthood (Figure 1
), all of the factor loadings were significant at P<.001. The estimated model had a goodness-of-fit index of 0.91. The minimum fit function 
2 of the obtained model was 187.24 with 63 df. The standardized root mean square residual was 0.069. Therefore, the obtained model was an adequate representation of the relations among the latent constructs.
|
The empirical model manifested the following 4 statistically significant pathways (determined using a 1-tailed test of statistical significance): (1) there was a negative path from positive family relationships to mal-adaptive personality attributes (t = –5.02, P < .001); (2) there was a positive path from maladaptive personality attributes to substance use (t = 6.14, P < .001); (3) there was a positive path from family smoking to substance use (t = 1.97, P < .05); and (4) there was a negative path from substance use to smoking cessation (t = –5.66, P < .001). Except for 1 direct path from family smoking to the cessation of smoking, our hypothesized model was supported. Results further indicated that this model did not differ for men and women or for African American and Puerto Rican participants.
An analysis of total effects indicated that the effect of each of the latent constructs on smoking cessation was statistically significant (Table 1). The latent construct of substance use had the greatest effect on smoking cessation followed by maladaptive personality attributes, family smoking, and positive family relationships.
|
DISCUSSION |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONReferences |
|---|
To our knowledge, this is the first study of the pathway to cessation of smoking in a community sample of African American and Puerto Rican young adults. The study is unique in that we have traced the pathways to smoking cessation between late adolescence and young adulthood as proposed by a hypothesized theoretical model. Our findings also indicate that there are no appreciable ethnic or gender differences in the pathways to smoking cessation in young adulthood.
We found that approximately one third of African American and a little over one third of Puerto Rican young adults quit smoking between the ages of 19 and 24 years. Up until the present time, there were few data on the number of African Americans and Puerto Ricans who quit smoking. Our findings take on added importance because they demonstrate that although there is considerable stability in smoking between late adolescence and young adulthood, there is still the possibility of significant change. Some other studies have identified lower cessation rates among late adolescents and young adults.25,38 For example, in a nationally representative sample, Zhu et al.25 found that the smoking cessation rate for young adults between ages 18 and 19 years, and 22 and 23 years was only 18%.
The study findings support our hypothesized model and suggest 3 major pathways to young adult smoking cessation. The first pathway indicates that a positive parent-offspring relationship is negatively associated with mal-adaptive personality attributes of unconventional behavior and psychological distress, which in turn are related to substance use and early onset of smoking behavior, which in turn are negatively linked to smoking cessation. The second pathway demonstrates that maternal and sibling smoking are related to substance use and early smoking onset in young adults, which in turn are negatively linked with smoking cessation. The third pathway clearly indicates that substance use and earlier onset of smoking are directly related to less successful smoking cessation in young adults.
Our findings show that less maternal and sibling smoking was related to less substance use and late onset of smoking in young adults, which in turn were linked with successful smoking cessation. These results are consistent with literature that has found a link between smoking in the family and earlier onset of smoking,8 between familial smoking and other substance use,11,12 and between earlier onset of smoking and substance use and less successful smoking cessation.9,10,16 The link between exposure to smoking in the family and the use of other substances has been explained as a generalization effect, whereby the family’s use of a specific substance (cigarettes) affects the offspring’s use of other substances as well.11
It is not clear why the hypothesized path between family smoking and smoking cessation was not statistically significant. However, it seems that this relationship was fully mediated by the young adult’s substance use and early smoking initiation. It may be that, in young adulthood, a family’s smoking behavior has no direct effect on the offspring’s cessation once the offspring’s own concurrent substance use and the age at which smoking began are taken into consideration.
The effect of a positive parent–offspring relationship on young adult smoking cessation was mediated by a negative path from positive parent–offspring relationship to mal-adaptive personality attributes, which in turn, were positively linked with young adult substance use. This finding is consistent with family interactional theory7 and with research on community samples, including racial and ethnic minority youth.39,40 In accordance with family interactional theory, aspects of a strong parent–offspring bond, including less parent–offspring conflict, strengthen the ties to conventional authority that the parents represent and incline adolescents toward the avoidance of rebellious and deviant behavior and, ultimately, substance use.7
Numerous investigators have indicated that a lack of behavioral control during adolescence and young adulthood, including delinquent, risk-taking, and rebellious behavior, predict substance use in adulthood.41–43 We found that such characteristics were not only related to frequency of substance use and age of smoking onset but were are also indirectly related to the cessation of smoking behavior. Thus, we have demonstrated the importance of conventional and achievement-oriented personality attributes for smoking cessation in young adulthood.
Young adult substance use and early onset of smoking had a direct negative effect on smoking cessation for young adults. Participants who started to smoke at a later age were more likely to quit smoking than those who had started at an earlier age, which is consistent with the literature.9,10 Furthermore, substance use and early onset of smoking were the most proximal link in the chain leading to young adult smoking cessation. However, the mechanisms underlying the relation between substance use in young adulthood and young adult smoking cessation have not been clearly established. One might speculate that the use of other substances might change the functioning of neuroregulatory pathways and thereby make it more difficult to quit smoking. Future research should continue to explore this possibility.
The total effects analysis of unique effects provides additional insight into the relative contributions of family smoking, positive family relationships, and maladaptive personality attributes as they relate to the ability to quit smoking among adults aged 20–29 years. We found that each of the domains was significant and that substance use had the greatest (negative) effect on smoking cessation, followed by family smoking, positive family relationships, and maladaptive personality attributes.
Limitations
The results reported here must be interpreted in light of several limitations. First, young adults’ smoking cessation was not only related to maladaptive personality attributes, substance use, positive family relationships, and smoking in the family but also to factors not included in this study, such as genetic and biological factors.13,44 Future studies should try to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the many factors associated with the cessation of smoking behavior among young adults. Second, there appear to be differences in smoking cessation between daily smokers and those who smoke less than daily (G. Giovino, PhD, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, and D.C. Barker, MHS, Barker Bi-Coastal Health Consultants, oral communication, December 2006). Future research should examine whether there are differences in the pathways to smoking cessation in these 2 groups. Third, the test of our cross-sectional model could only present relations among the latent variables studied and could not prove causality. However the analyses of these constructs using structural equation modeling suggests a causal ordering.
Conclusions
We examined the interrelation of several longitudinal predictors of cigarette smoking cessation in African American and Puerto Rican young adults. One result of particular note is the fact that positive parent–offspring relations had an indirect path to cessation of smoking in adults aged 24–26 years, which suggests the importance of the parents’ role in the cessation behavior of their young adult offspring. To our knowledge, this is the first investigation to assess family smoking, aspects of relationships between parents and their young adult offspring, maladaptive personality characteristics, and substance use in relation to cessation of smoking in a sample of African American and Puerto Rican young adults. The implications of the findings include the need to target all of these areas in smoking cessation interventions. Our findings also suggest that the factors related to smoking cessation that we identified in this research are equally important for African American and Puerto Rican young adults. Thus, whereas it is important to address these areas in culturally specific ways for African American and Puerto Rican young adults, the domains of influence seem to be the same for both ethnic groups.
|
|
Acknowledgments |
|---|
This study was supported by the National Institutes of Health (research scientist award K05 DA00244 and grant R01 DA05702).
Human Participant Protection
This study was approved by New York University’s institutional review board, protocol number H11458.
|
Footnotes |
|---|
Peer Reviewed
Contributors
Stephen Marcus originated the study and supervised all aspects of its implementation. Kerstin Pahl and Judith Brook synthesized analyses and led the writing. Yuming Ning completed the analyses.
Accepted for publication December 9, 2006.
|
References |
|---|
|
TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONReferences |
|---|
1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Cigarette smoking among adults—United States, 2004. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2005;54:1121–1124.[Medline]
2. US Department of Health and Human Services. The Health Consequences of Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General. Rockville, Md: US Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Surgeon General; 2004.
3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Annual smoking-attributable mortality, years of potential life lost, and productivity losses-United States, 1997–2001. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2005;54:625–628.[Medline]
4. Breslau N, Johnson EO, Kessler RC. Nicotine dependence in the States: prevalence, trends, and smoking persistence. Arch Gen Psych. 2001;58:810–816.
5. Doll R, Peto R, Boreham J, Sutherland I. Mortality in relation to smoking: 50 years’ observations on male British doctors. BMJ. 2004;328:1519.
6. National Institute on Drug Abuse. Drug Use, Drinking, and Smoking: National Survey Results from High School, College, and Young Adult Populations, 1975–1988. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office; 1989. DHHS publication ADM 89–1638.
7. Brook JS, Brook DW, Gordon AS, Whiteman M, Cohen P. The psychological etiology of adolescent drug use: a family interactional approach. Genet Soc Gen Psychol Monogr. 1990;116:111–267.[Web of Science][Medline]
8. Rohde P, Lewinsohn PM, Brown RA, Gau JM, Kahler CA. Psychiatric disorders, familial factors and cigarette smoking: I. associations with smoking initiation. Nicotine Tob Res. 2003;5:85–98.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
9. Breslau N, Peterson EL. Smoking cessation in young adults: age at initiation of cigarette smoking and other suspected influences. Am J Public Health. 1996; 86:214–220.
10. Khuder SA, Dayal HH, Mutgi AB. Age at smoking onset and its effect on smoking cessation. Addict Behav. 1999;24:673–677.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
11. Andrews JA, Hops H, Ary D, Tilldesley E, Harris J. Parental influence on early adolescent substance use: specific and nonspecific effects. J Early Adolescence. 1993;13:285–310.[CrossRef]
12. Gfroerer J. Correlation between drug use by teenagers and drug use by older family members. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 1987;13:95–108.[Web of Science][Medline]
13. Sullivan PF, Kendler KS. The genetic epidemiology of smoking. Nicotine Tob Res. 1999;1:S51–S57.[Abstract]
14. Akers RL, Lee G. A longitudinal test of social learning theory: adolescent smoking. Journal of Drug Issues. 1996;26:317–343.[Web of Science]
15. Bandura A. Social foundations of thought and action: a social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall; 1986.
16. Richter KP, Ahluwalia HK, Mosier MC, Nazier N, Ahluwalia JS. A population-based study of cigarette smoking among illicit drug users in the United States. Addiction. 2002;97:861–869.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
17. Doherty WJ, Alan W. Family functioning and parental smoking as predictors of adolescent cigarette use: a six-year prospective study. J Fam Psychol. 1994; 8:347–353.[CrossRef]
18. Fagan P, Brook JS, Rubenstone E, Zhang C. Parental occupation, education, and smoking as predictors of offspring tobacco use in adulthood: a longitudinal study. Addict Behav. 2005;30:517–529.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
19. Peterson AV, Leroux BG, Bricker J, et al. Nine-year prediction of adolescent smoking by number of smoking parents. Addict Behav. 2006;31:788–801.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
20. Chassin L, Presson CC, Sherman SJ, Montello D, McGrew J. Changes in peer and parent influence during adolescence: longitudinal versus cross-sectional perspectives on smoking initiation. Dev Psychol. 1986;22: 327–334.[CrossRef][Web of Science]
21. Li C, Pentz MA, Chou C-P. Parental substance use as a modifier of adolescent substance use risk. Addiction. 2002;97(12):1537–1550.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
22. Gritz ER, Prokhorov AV, Hudmon KS, et al. Cigarette smoking in a multiethnic population of youth: methods and baseline findings. Prev Med. 1998;27: 365–384.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
23. Moreno C, Laniado-Laborin R, Sallis JF, et al. Parental influences to smoke in Latino youth. Prev Med. 1994;12:48–53.
24. Najem GR, Batuman F, Smith AM, Feuerman M. Patterns of smoking among inner-city teenagers: smoking has a pediatric age of onset. J Adolesc Health. 1997; 20:226–231.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
25. Zhu SH, Sun J, Billings SC, Choi WS, Malarcher A. Predictors of smoking cessation in US adolescents. Am J Prev Med. 1999;16:202–207.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
26. California State Department of Health Services, Cancer Surveillance Section. California Youth Tobacco Survey SAS dataset documentation and technical report, 1994–1997. Sacramento: California Department of Health Services; 1998.
27. Bryant AL, Zimmerman MA. Examining the effects of academic beliefs and behaviors on changes in substance use among urban adolescents. J Educ Psychol. 2002;94:621–637.[CrossRef][Web of Science]
28. Flannery DJ, Vazsonyi AT, Torquati J, Fridrich A. Ethnic and gender differences in risk for early adolescent substance use. J Youth and Adolescence. 1994;23: 195–213.[CrossRef][Web of Science]
29. Gorman DM, Derzon JH. Behavioral traits and marijuana use and abuse: a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Addict Behav. 2002;27:193–206.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
30. Orlando M, Ellickson PL, Jinnett K. The temporal relationship between emotional distress and cigarette smoking during adolescence and young adulthood. J Consult Clin Pscyhol. 2001;69:959–970.[CrossRef]
31. Schaefer ES, Finkelstein NW. Child behavior toward parents: an inventory and factor analysis. Paper presented at: Meeting of the American Psychological Association; August 1975; Chicago, Ill.
32. Jackson DN Personality Research Form. Goshen, NY: Research Psychologists Press; 1974.
33. Jessor R, Graves TD, Hanson RC, Jessor SL. Society, Personality and Deviant Behavior: A Study of a Triethnic Community. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston; 1968.
34. Smith, GM., Fogg, CP. Psychological antecedents of teenage drug use. In: Simmons R, ed. Research in Community and Mental Health: An Annual Compilation of Research. Vol. 1. Greenwich, Conn: JAI;1979:87–102.
35. Derogatis LR, Lipman RS, Rickles K, Uhlenhuth EH, Covi L. The Hopkins Symptom Checklist (HSC): a self-report symptom inventory. Behav Sci. 1974;19:1–15.[Web of Science][Medline]
36. Gold M. Undetected delinquent behavior. J Res Crime and Delinquency. 1966;3:27–46.[Abstract]
37. Draper, NR, Smith H. Applied Regression Analysis. 3rd ed. New York, NY: Wiley;1988.
38. Ward KD, Vander Weg MW, Kovach KW, et al. Ethnic and gender differences in smoking and smoking cessation in a population of young adult air force recruits. Am J Health Promot. 2002;16:259–266.[Web of Science][Medline]
39. Clark TR, Phares V. Feelings in the family: inter-parental conflict, anger, and expressiveness in families with older adolescents. The Family Journal: Counseling and Therapy for Couples and Families. 2004;12:129–138.[Abstract]
40. Finkenauer C, Engels RCME, Baumeister RF. Parenting behaviour and adolescent behavioural and emotional problems: the role of self-control. Int J Behav Dev. 2005;29:58–69.[CrossRef]
41. Hays RD, Ellickson PL. Associations between drug use and deviant behavior in teenagers. Addict Behav. 1996;21:291–302.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
42. Brook JS, Whiteman M, Czeisler LJ, Shapiro J, Cohen P. Cigarette smoking in young adults: childhood and adolescent personality, familial, and peer antecedents. J Genet Psychol. 1997;158:172–188.[Web of Science][Medline]
43. Wills TA, Windle M, Cleary SD. Temperament and novelty seeking in adolescent substance use: convergence of dimension of temperament with constructs from Cloninger’s Theory. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1998;74: 387–406.[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]
44. Melby JN, Conger RD, Conger KJ, Lorenz FO. Effects of parental behavior on tobacco use by young male adolescents. J Marriage Fam. 1993;55:439–454.[CrossRef][Web of Science]
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
 |
|
  J. S. Brook, N. S. Saar, C. Zhang, and D. W. Brook Psychosocial Antecedents and Adverse Health Consequences Related to Substance Use Am J Public Health, March 1, 2009; 99(3): 563 - 568. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 P. Fagan, J. S. Brook, E. Rubenstone, C. Zhang, and D. W. Brook Longitudinal precursors of young adult light smoking among African Americans and Puerto Ricans Nicotine Tob Res, February 27, 2009; (2009) ntp009v1. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |